1667年，荷蘭使節團在北京朝覲之後，年輕的康熙皇帝訂做《賀蘭國人役牛馬圖》一幅，即基本上我們對此次荷蘭朝覲的唯一中方資料。這次朝覲充滿了神秘。因為前幾年荷蘭人幫助清軍打敗明朝海盜鄭成功的緣故，荷蘭人期望獲得更好的貿易特權。儘管從福州到北京出發之前已得知要求被拒，他們仍舊啟程前往朝覲，但最終再次遭拒。為什麼滿族統治者和中國官員允許旅程繼續並在北京接待荷蘭人？康熙皇帝為什麼訂做這幅畫？這幅畫可否說明康熙皇帝對荷蘭人的態度？一幅描繪荷蘭人進貢送馬的畫，是否意味著康熙皇帝把荷蘭當做中國的屬國？那麼，為什麼康熙朝廷拒絕給予荷蘭人更好的貿易特權呢？到目前為止，現代研究對這些問題不是迴避，便是未能提出令人滿意的回答。本研究將以這幅畫為出發點，以「馬」為主題，進行以下考察：其一，研究這幅畫及其御製背景；其二，研究中國人和滿族人這一方在荷蘭使節旅程期間、北京宮廷朝覲時，乃至荷蘭人離開甚久之後，對這四匹馬不成比例的關注；其三，通過對貢馬畫的藝術史研究，探討康熙皇帝對馬的熱情及訂做畫的可能動機；第四和最後，推斷清方拒絕給予荷蘭人貿易特權的可能原因。本研究認為，康熙皇帝允許荷蘭使節團朝覲的唯一目的，似乎是為了獲得荷蘭的馬匹。在古代中國人的心目中，此馬匹代表漢代以降流傳的「天馬」。這種傳統中的馬，無論是貢馬還是畫作，都是帝國合法化與天命的象徵。相比之下，清方可能出於戰略考量而拒絕給予貿易特權，以保滿族軍對中國南方海域的控制。

The tribute painting “Dutch Attendants, Oxen, and Horses” commissioned by the young Kangxi Emperor in 1667 after a visit of a Dutch embassy to the Kangxi court is basically the sole information we have on the Chinese side of this visit. This visit is surrounded with mysteries. The Dutch hoped and expected to obtain better trade privileges for their help in subduing the Ming loyalist and pirate Koxinga in the previous years, and even though they were already informed before their departure from Fuzhou to Beijing that their request was denied, they embarked on their journey anyway, only to be denied again in the end. Why did the Manchu rulers and Chinese officials allow the journey to continue and did they receive the Dutch in Beijing? Why would the Kangxi Emperor commission the painting? What does the painting say, if anything, about Kangxi’s attitude toward the Dutch? Would a tribute painting of the Dutch presenting horses not mean that Kangxi considered the Dutch a tribute state? Why then did the Kangxi court deny the Dutch better trade privileges? Modern studies have thus far glossed over or have failed to answer these questions satisfyingly. This study uses the painting as a starting point and the horses as a leitmotiv to investigate, firstly, the painting and its imperial commission; secondly, the disproportionate attention on the Chinese and Manchu side to the horses during the journey and eventually during the court audience in Beijing and even long after that; thirdly, the possible motives behind Kangxi’s passion for horses and his commissioning of the painting, by presenting an art historical study of tribute horse paintings; and fourthly and lastly, the possible reasons for the denial of the trade privileges to the Dutch. The study argues that the Kangxi Emperor ordered the dispatch of another Dutch embassy seemingly for the sole purpose of obtaining the horses. In the eyes of the Chinese, the horses represent Heavenly Horses with a tradition dating back to the Han dynasty, which as tribute and as paintings thereof have become symbols of imperial legitimation and divine sanction. The denial of the trade privileges, however, was probably strategically motivated to ensure Manchu control over the southern sea border.

職貢圖; 馬畫; 天馬; 康熙皇帝; 荷蘭使節團

tribute painting; horse painting; Heavenly Horse; Kangxi Emperor; Dutch embassy